Militarism is the ideology of building up a nation’s army to be prepared for war.
World War I was the first war to use advanced tactics and weaponry.
Countries expanded both armies and navies
Germany and Britain competed in a naval arms race
European nations raced to develop weapons of mass destruction
Alliances
Two major alliances formed in Europe before World War I:
Alliance
Members
Description
Triple Alliance
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
Agreed to defend one another in case of conflict
Triple Entente
Russia, France, Great Britain
Looser agreement that surrounded the Triple Alliance
Italy
1911: Italy requested military aid during the Italo-Turkish War, but was refused
1914: Italy remained neutral when WWI began
1915: Italy joined the Allies after signing the Treaty of London
Italy wanted territories controlled by Austria-Hungary
Nationalism
Nationalism is an ideology based on strong pride and devotion to one’s nation.
In Serbia, a nationalist group called the Black Hand formed
The group aimed to create a Greater Serbia through violence
Imperialism
Imperialism is the policy of increasing a country's power through colonization.
Britain, Germany, and France sought foreign markets after industrialization
Competition for African territories increased tensions
Conflicts arose in North Africa between France, Germany, and Britain
The Balkans, Russia, and Austria-Hungary competed for influence in the Middle East
Assassination
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife,
Duchess Sophie, were assassinated in Bosnia.
The attack was carried out by members of the Black Hand
The group believed Bosnia should belong to Serbia
There were two assassination attempts on the same day
The successful assassin was Gavrilo Princip
Domino Effect
Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination
Germany pledged full support to Austria-Hungary
Nations declared war as alliances activated
Major Powers
Central Powers
Allied Powers
Germany
Russia
Austria-Hungary
France
Ottoman Empire
Great Britain
Bulgaria
Italy, Japan, United States (1917)
Extended Domino Effect:
Austria-Hungary → Serbia → Germany ↔ Austria-Hungary → Russia ↔ Serbia → France ↔ Russia → Germany invades Belgium → Great Britain ↔ Belgium
Trench Warfare
Trenches were dug by both sides and protected with barbed wire and mines
They were 6–8 feet deep and stretched from the English Channel to Switzerland
Soldiers lived underground in elaborate defense systems
British and French trenches were muddy and disease-ridden
German trenches were often permanent and had electricity or running water
Trench warfare caused diseases such as trench foot
United States Entry into the War
Initially, the United States remained neutral due to diverse immigrant loyalties
and President Wilson’s desire to avoid foreign conflict.
The US supplied weapons to both sides, earning massive profits
Key reasons for entry included the Lusitania sinking and the Zimmermann Telegram
American military power helped secure an Allied victory
Lusitania
British passenger ship with 1,960 passengers, over 100 Americans
International law required warnings before attacking civilian ships
Germany attacked without warning on May 7, 1915
1,198 people were killed, including 128 Americans
Germany claimed the ship carried ammunition (still debated)
Zimmermann Telegram
The Zimmermann Telegram was a secret German message sent to Mexico in January 1917.
Intercepted by Britain and revealed in March 1917
Germany offered Mexico an alliance against the US
Mexico was promised Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona if Germany won
Other World War I Treaties
St. Germain (1919)
Signed in 1919
Between Austria and the Allies
Led to the breakup of Austria-Hungary into multiple independent nations
Neuilly (1919)
Signed in 1919
Between Bulgaria and the Allies
Punished Bulgaria for fighting on the side of the Central Powers
Trianon (1920)
Signed in 1920
Between Hungary and the Allies
Formalized Hungary’s status after the breakup of Austria-Hungary
Sèvres (1920)
Signed in 1920
Between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies
Led to the separation and collapse of the Ottoman Empire
The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was the formal peace treaty that ended World War I.
Its terms were heavily influenced by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson’s
Fourteen Points.
Germany was not allowed to attend the negotiations
The treaty was signed in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles
Key Leaders and Aims
Leader
Country
Aims
Woodrow Wilson
United States
Prevent future wars, avoid blaming Germany, and establish the League of Nations
Georges Clemenceau
France
Punish Germany, regain Alsace-Lorraine, weaken Germany militarily,
demand reparations, and create an independent Rhineland
David Lloyd George
Great Britain
Punish Germany enough to satisfy the public but keep Germany strong enough for trade,
gain land for Britain, and protect naval dominance
Terms of the Treaty of Versailles
Germany was declared guilty of aggression and blamed for the war
Germany was required to pay reparations to the Allies
France regained Alsace-Lorraine
Germany lost parts of its pre-war territory
The Saar coal mines were given to France
German colonies were transferred to the Allies
The German army was limited to 100,000 soldiers and naval power was restricted
Belgium, Poland, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia had their independence confirmed
The Covenant of the League of Nations was included
Consequences of the Treaty
Germany lost 13% of its land
15% of agricultural land and 10% of industry were lost
Approximately 6 million Germans were displaced
Germany experienced hyperinflation due to excessive money printing
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an international organization established on
January 10, 1920. It is considered the predecessor of the United Nations.
Aims of the League
Maintain international peace
Encourage cooperation and trade between nations
Improve living and working conditions
Prevent future wars
Structure
The Council
The Assembly
The Secretariat
Important: All League decisions had to be unanimous to be enforced.
Powers and Limitations
Could condemn countries and impose trade embargoes
Could organize humanitarian aid
Had no standing army to enforce decisions
Membership
USA never joined the League
Germany, Russia, and China were initially excluded
Germany and the USSR joined later
Japan and Germany later withdrew
League Successes
Freed slaves and prisoners of war
Regulated drugs
Provided aid during economic collapse
Helped prevent the spread of disease
Conflict Resolution Examples
Aaland Islands (1921): Given to Finland but demilitarized
Upper Silesia (1921): Split between Germany and Poland
Greece–Bulgaria: Greece was ordered to withdraw and pay a fine
League Failures
Global cooperation declined after the Great Depression
Rise of fascist and militaristic governments
Failed to stop Japan in Manchuria
Failed to stop Italy in Abyssinia
Failed to stop German expansion into Czechoslovakia
The League of Nations ultimately failed due to weak enforcement powers,
limited membership, economic pressures from the Great Depression,
and unequal power among member states.
Unit 2: Superpowers, Empires and Institutions
Alliances and Supranational Alliances
The Cold War (1945–1991)
A war of ideologies
Communism vs Capitalism
Main rivals: USA vs USSR
No direct fighting between the two superpowers
Conflict occurred through proxy wars and influence over other countries
Key Ideologies
Communism
Economic and social system
All property and resources are owned collectively
Controlled by the government or society
Capitalism
Economic system based on free markets
Little to no government interference
Property and businesses are privately owned
Superpower Comparison
USA
USSR
Democratic, capitalist nation
One-party communist dictatorship
Wealthiest country
Economic superpower
Private ownership of business and property
State-controlled economy
Great wealth and great poverty
Low unemployment and poverty
Strongly anti-communist
Strongly anti-capitalist
Before the Cold War
The Bolsheviks overthrew the Russian government
1922: Formation of the communist USSR
The USA refused to recognize the USSR until 1933
Tensions developed near the end of WWI
Each side portrayed the other as dangerous and evil
World War II Alliance
The USA and USSR allied during WWII
The alliance was based on a shared enemy: Nazi Germany
Stalin believed the USSR made the greatest sacrifices in defeating the Nazis
Causes of the Cold War
Ideological Differences
Fundamental disagreement between communism and capitalism.
Sovietization (1944–1948)
Stalin aimed to bring Eastern European countries under Soviet control
Truman Doctrine (1947)
US policy to help war-affected European nations resist communism
The Marshall Plan (European Recovery Program)
Over $13 billion in aid to rebuild Western Europe
Offer extended to Eastern Europe and the USSR
The USSR rejected the aid
Soviet Occupation of Eastern Europe
Soviet troops remained in Eastern Europe after WWII
Established communist governments
The Iron Curtain
Term used by Winston Churchill
Divided Eastern (Soviet-aligned) and Western (US-aligned) Europe
Limited contact between communist and non-communist states
Division of Germany
Germany split into four zones: USA, Britain, France, USSR
Berlin was also divided into four zones despite being in the Soviet zone
Policy of Containment
A geopolitical strategy used by the USA to prevent the spread of communism
and isolate the Soviet Union.
Yalta Conference (February 1945)
Held at Livadia Palace near Yalta, Crimea
Attended by the Big Three: Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill
Planned post-war Europe after Germany’s defeat
Key Decisions
Germany would be divided into occupation zones
Nazi war criminals would be hunted and punished
Liberated countries could hold free elections
The Big Three would join the United Nations
Eastern Europe recognized as a Soviet sphere of influence
April 1961: 1,400 anti-Castro exiles attempted an invasion (Bay of Pigs)
Autumn 1962: The USSR placed missiles, troops, and military equipment in Cuba
Cuba became a launch base for Soviet intercontinental missiles
Soviet Motives
Khrushchev wanted to test President Kennedy’s strength
He hoped to bargain over US missiles in Europe
US Response
US intelligence discovered missile sites and Soviet ships
The US raised the issue at the United Nations
Kennedy’s Options
Air strike
Negotiations
Military blockade
Invasion of Cuba
Use of nuclear weapons
Outcome: JFK imposed a naval blockade and demanded removal of missiles.
Khrushchev agreed to withdraw missiles if the blockade ended and the US promised not to invade Cuba.
The US also secretly agreed to remove missiles from Turkey.
Vietnam War
France colonized Vietnam in the 1800s
Nationalist movements emerged in the early 1900s
The Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, became the most prominent group
During WWII, Japan occupied Vietnam
1945: Japan surrendered and Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam independent
France returned, and Ho Chi Minh sought US support
The US supported France due to Cold War fears
Division of Vietnam
1954: France was defeated at Dien Bien Phu
The Geneva Accords divided Vietnam into North and South
Division was meant to be temporary with elections in 1956
The US supported Ngo Dinh Diem in South Vietnam
Diem cancelled elections and declared the Republic of Vietnam
Diem’s regime was corrupt but supported by the US
Escalation
1962: JFK sent military advisors to South Vietnam
1963: The US supported a coup against Diem
1964: Gulf of Tonkin incident involving US Navy ships
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution allowed US military escalation
1965: Sustained bombing of North Vietnam began
Tet Offensive (1968)
Launched by North Vietnam and the Vietcong
Nearly 80,000 fighters attacked over 100 cities
Targets included US bases and the US Embassy
Public support for the war collapsed
US Withdrawal
Large anti-war movement in the US (1969)
Nixon claimed a “silent majority” supported the war
US troops were gradually withdrawn
The war effort was handed to South Vietnam
US bombed Vietcong targets in Cambodia and Laos
1973: Ceasefire signed and US troops left
1975: South Vietnam fell and Vietnam was reunified under communism
Korean War
1950–1953
Japan occupied Korea from 1895 until WWII
After WWII, Korea was divided at the 38th Parallel
North Korea
South Korea
Communist dictatorship
Capitalist democracy
Led by Kim Il-Sung
Led by Syngman Rhee
Supported by USSR and China
Supported by USA and the UN
1950: North Korea invaded South Korea
The UN intervened, led by the USA
General Douglas MacArthur commanded UN forces
1950: UN troops landed at Inchon
China entered the war after UN forces advanced north
July 27, 1953: Armistice signed
A 4km-wide Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) was created
No formal peace treaty was ever signed
Fall of the Soviet Union
The USSR spent heavily supporting communism abroad
Large expenses from the Arms Race and Space Race
From 1986, funding to satellite states was reduced
Eastern European nations overthrew communist governments
Mikhail Gorbachev introduced reforms
Glasnost
Greater government transparency
Increased freedom of speech and press
Perestroika
Economic restructuring
Limited private ownership of businesses
The Soviet Union officially dissolved in 1991.
Key Figures in Ending the Cold War
Mikhail Gorbachev: Introduced Glasnost and Perestroika
Ronald Reagan: Worked with Gorbachev and called for the Berlin Wall’s removal
George H. W. Bush: Continued improving US–Russian relations
Boris Yeltsin: Elected President of Russia
United Nations
Formed in 1945 after World War II
Nations signed the UN Charter outlining rights and obligations
The UN officially came into existence on October 24, 1945
October 24 is celebrated as United Nations Day
Urbanisation, Power & Social Change
1. Haussmannisation of Paris
What is Haussmannisation?
Haussmannisation refers to the large-scale redevelopment of Paris carried out
between 1853–1870 by Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann under Napoleon III.
Key Features
Wide boulevards replacing narrow medieval streets
Improved sewage and water systems
Large public parks (e.g. Bois de Boulogne)
Uniform building styles
Improved street lighting and ventilation
Reasons
Improve public health and reduce disease
Control riots through easier army movement
Modernize Paris
Improve trade and transport
Effects
Positive
Reduced spread of disease
Improved transport networks
Modern city image
Negative
Working-class people displaced to outskirts
Loss of historic neighbourhoods
Increased social inequality
Comparison with London
London was not centrally planned like Paris
Urban improvements occurred gradually
Main focus was sanitation after cholera outbreaks
Less forced displacement compared to Paris
2. Regency London (Early 19th Century)
What was Regency London?
The Regency period (1811–1820) was when Prince Regent George IV ruled Britain.
Characteristics
Expansion of London westwards
Planned developments such as Regent Street and Regent’s Park
Elegant architecture
Sharp contrast between rich and poor
Social Reality
Upper classes lived in clean, spacious areas
Poor lived in overcrowded slums
Poor sanitation and disease were widespread
3. PPP Model (Public–Private Partnership)
Definition
A Public–Private Partnership (PPP) is a system where governments and private
companies cooperate to develop infrastructure.
Use in History
Railways
Housing
Transport systems
Strengths
Faster development
Shared financial burden
Use of private expertise
Weaknesses
Profit prioritized over people
Poor communities often excluded
Limited government control
4. Effects of the Industrial Revolution
London
Rapid urbanisation
Factory expansion
Overcrowded slums
Pollution and disease
Growth of a new middle class
Bombay (Mumbai)
Expansion of textile mills
Large-scale migration of workers
Housing shortages
Growth of informal settlements
5. Bombay Development & Land Reclamation
Why Land Reclamation?
Bombay was originally seven islands
Need for space for ports, railways and mills
Major Projects
Hornby Vellard Project
Filling marshy land
Connecting the islands
Impact
Expansion of the city
Industrial growth
Environmental damage
Increased inequality
6. Growth of Indigenous Communities
Who were Indigenous Communities?
Local populations living in Bombay before industrialisation, including
fisherfolk and artisans.
Impact of Urban Growth
Loss of land
Forced relocation
Loss of traditional livelihoods
Cultural marginalisation
7. Migration
Causes
Industrial job opportunities
Rural poverty
Famines
British colonial economic policies
Effects
Rapid population growth
Overcrowding
Cultural diversity
Housing shortages
8. Changes in Lifestyle
Working Class
Long working hours
Poor living conditions
Shared facilities
Limited healthcare
Middle & Upper Class
Improved housing
Leisure activities
Better hygiene
Access to education
9. Changes in City Planning
Introduction of zoning
Separation of industrial and residential areas
Planned roads and railways
Improved sanitation systems
10. Development of Chawls
What are Chawls?
Chawls were multi-storey residential buildings built to house industrial workers
in Bombay.
Features
Small single-room homes
Shared toilets
Narrow corridors
High population density
11. Living in a Chawl
Limited privacy
Strong community bonds
Shared water taps
Noise and overcrowding
Collective celebration of festivals
Renaissance & Reformation
12. The Renaissance
The Renaissance was a period of cultural rebirth in Europe from the
14th to 17th century.
13. Causes of the Renaissance
Fall of Constantinople
Wealth from trade
Patronage by families like the Medici
Decline of feudalism
Growth of humanism
14. Art & Architecture
Art
Realism
Perspective
Human anatomy
Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael
Architecture
Symmetry
Domes and columns
Inspired by Greek and Roman styles
15. Renaissance Literature
Focus on human experience
Written in local languages
William Shakespeare, Dante, Machiavelli
16. The Reformation
A religious movement challenging the authority of the Catholic Church.
17. Martin Luther
German monk
Criticised Church corruption
Published the 95 Theses (1517)
Led to Protestantism
18. Indulgences
Payments to reduce punishment for sins
Exploited the poor
Triggered reform movements
19. Role of the Church
Before
Absolute authority
Controlled education and religion
After
Reduced power
Rise of Protestant churches
Individual interpretation of faith
History of Healthcare Systems
20. Individual Healthcare Experiences (Past)
Limited access
Expensive treatment
Reliance on traditional medicine
High mortality rates
21. Key Terminology
Epidemic: Widespread disease
Pandemic: Global disease outbreak
Mortality rate: Death rate
Public health: Government health measures
22. Traditional Medical Systems in India
Ayurveda: Balance of body energies
Homeopathy: Like cures like
Unani: Balance of humors
Siddha: Herbal and mineral medicines
23. Anganwadi System
Government childcare centres
Nutrition and healthcare for women and children
Part of public health development
24. Ancient & Medieval Healthcare
Ancient
Herbal medicine
Surgery (Sushruta)
Hygiene practices
Medieval
Unani medicine
Hospitals under rulers
Limited scientific understanding
25. Medical Breakthroughs (19th Century)
Germ theory (Louis Pasteur)
Vaccination
Anesthesia
Sanitation reforms
Discovery of bacteria
Improved hospitals
Exam Skills & Writing Frameworks
PEST: Political · Economic · Social · Environmental
OPVL Analysis
Origin: Author, time, type of source
Purpose: Aim, audience, format, message
Value: Perspective, context, usefulness
Limitation: Bias, gaps, inaccuracies
History Essay Template (PEST Format)
Title
Clearly state the topic, time period, and location addressed in the question.
Introduction
Introduce the historical context of the question. Clearly define key terms and
outline the focus of the essay. End with a clear line explaining what the essay
will analyse using the PEST framework.
Political Factors
Analyse the political causes, policies, leadership decisions, laws, alliances,
or power structures related to the topic. Support points with specific historical
evidence and examples.
Use transitional phrases such as “Politically,” or
“From a political perspective,”.
Economic Factors
Examine economic conditions such as trade, industry, wealth distribution,
employment, taxation, or economic policies. Link economic motivations to the
development of events.
Use transitions such as “Economically,” or
“In economic terms,”.
Social Factors
Discuss impacts on different social groups, class divisions, living conditions,
migration, education, healthcare, and changes in lifestyles. Include multiple
perspectives where possible.
Transition using phrases like “Socially,” or
“From a societal viewpoint,”.
Environmental Factors
Analyse environmental impacts such as urban planning, sanitation, pollution,
land use, housing conditions, or public health. Connect environmental change to
human experiences.
Transition using “Environmentally,” or
“From an environmental perspective,”.
Counterarguments / Different Perspectives
Present alternative viewpoints or arguments. Explain why some groups may have
benefited while others suffered. Critically evaluate these perspectives.
Conclusion
Summarise the key political, economic, social, and environmental points discussed.
Directly answer the essay question and reflect on the overall significance of the
topic.
