1.1 What Is Individuals & Societies (I&S)?

Individuals & Societies (I&S) is a subject that studies how humans live, interact, and organise themselves in different societies across the world and throughout time.

It focuses on understanding the relationship between people, places, power, resources, and systems.

I&S helps us answer questions like:

Why do people live where they do?
How do societies change over time?
How do humans affect the environment?
How do governments and systems influence people’s lives?

Main aims of I&S:

To understand human behaviour and social organisation
To develop awareness of global issues
To think critically about the world around us
To become informed and responsible global citizens

Key disciplines within I&S:

History: The study of past events, people, and civilizations to understand how societies have developed and changed over time.
Geography: The study of places, environments, and how humans interact with the physical and human world.
Economics: The study of how people use limited resources to satisfy unlimited wants.
Civics: The study of government systems, laws, rights, and responsibilities.

In MYP, these disciplines are often combined to help students see connections between them rather than studying them separately.

1.2 Skills Developed in Individuals & Societies

Individuals & Societies is not only about learning facts — it is about developing important academic and life skills.

Inquiry Skills:

Asking clear and meaningful inquiry questions
Identifying what we already know and what we need to find out
Exploring different perspectives on an issue

Research Skills:

Using different types of sources (textbooks, maps, images, graphs)
Identifying primary and secondary sources
Selecting relevant information
Recording information accurately

Primary sources: Original sources from the time being studied (photographs, letters, artefacts).
Secondary sources: Sources created later (textbooks, articles).

Critical Thinking Skills:

Distinguishing between facts and opinions
Identifying bias in sources
Comparing different viewpoints
Making logical conclusions based on evidence

Note-taking & Organisation:

Summarising information in your own words
Organising notes using headings and bullet points
Using diagrams, tables, and mind maps

1.3 ATL Skills in Individuals & Societies

Approaches to Learning (ATL) skills help students become independent learners and work effectively with others.

Communication Skills:

Expressing ideas clearly in written work
Participating in discussions and debates
Using subject-specific vocabulary correctly
Presenting information using visuals and oral explanations

Research Skills:

Formulating research questions
Evaluating the reliability of sources
Citing sources correctly
Organising research findings logically

Thinking Skills:

Analysing information
Identifying patterns and trends
Applying knowledge to real-world situations
Reflecting on learning

Self-Management Skills:

Managing time effectively
Meeting deadlines
Staying organised
Reflecting on strengths and areas for improvement

ATL skills are used across all subjects, but I&S helps strengthen them through inquiry-based learning and real-world case studies.

2.1 Maps and Map Skills

A map is a representation of the Earth or part of the Earth drawn on a flat surface. Since the Earth is round, maps are simplified and scaled versions of reality.

Maps help us understand location, distance, direction, and the relationship between different places.

Why maps are important:

To locate places accurately
To plan travel routes
To understand physical and human features
To study weather, population, and resources

Types of Maps:

Physical maps: Show natural features such as mountains, rivers, plains, and oceans.
Political maps: Show countries, states, cities, and borders.
Thematic maps: Show specific information such as rainfall, population, or climate.

Map Symbols and Legends:

Symbols are pictures or signs used to represent features on a map
A legend (key) explains what each symbol means
Colours are also used to represent different features

Without a legend, a map would be difficult to understand.

Directions:

The four main directions are North, South, East, and West
A compass rose shows directions on a map
Most maps are drawn with North at the top

Grid References (Introductory):

Maps are divided into squares using vertical and horizontal lines
Each square helps locate a place more accurately
Grid references are read across first, then up

2.2 Latitude and Longitude (Introduction)

Latitude and longitude are imaginary lines drawn on the Earth to help locate places accurately.

Latitude:

Lines of latitude run east to west
They measure distance north or south of the Equator
Measured in degrees (°)

The Equator:

An imaginary line at 0° latitude
Divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
Regions near the Equator usually have warm climates

Longitude:

Lines of longitude run north to south
They measure distance east or west of the Prime Meridian

The Prime Meridian:

An imaginary line at 0° longitude
Divides the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres
Passes through Greenwich, England

Latitude and longitude work together to give the exact location of a place.

Hemispheres:

Northern Hemisphere
Southern Hemisphere
Eastern Hemisphere
Western Hemisphere

2.3 Physical Features of the Earth

Physical features are natural landforms created by natural processes such as erosion, volcanic activity, and weathering.

Major Physical Features:

Mountains: High landforms with steep sides, often formed by tectonic movement.
Plateaus: High, flat areas of land.
Plains: Large areas of flat or gently rolling land, often suitable for farming.
Rivers: Natural flowing water bodies that provide fresh water and support human settlements.
Deserts: Very dry areas with little rainfall.

Physical features influence where people live, what they eat, and the types of jobs they do.

Many early civilizations developed near rivers because of fertile soil and access to water.

2.4 Weather and Climate

Weather and climate describe conditions of the atmosphere, but they are not the same.

Weather:

Refers to day-to-day conditions of the atmosphere
Includes temperature, rainfall, wind, and humidity
Can change quickly

Climate:

Refers to the average weather of a place over a long period of time
Usually measured over 30 years or more
Examples: tropical, temperate, polar climates

Importance of Climate:

Affects the type of clothes people wear
Influences farming and food production
Determines housing styles
Shapes daily activities and lifestyles

Climate plays a major role in shaping both natural environments and human societies.

3.1 Understanding History

History is the study of past events, people, and societies. It helps us understand how the world we live in today has been shaped by actions and decisions made in the past.

By studying history, we learn about different cultures, ideas, and ways of life, and we can better understand change over time.

Why do we study history?

To understand how societies developed
To learn from past successes and mistakes
To understand different perspectives
To develop critical thinking skills

Historical Sources:

Primary sources: Original records created at the time being studied, such as letters, diaries, artefacts, tools, photographs, and inscriptions.
Secondary sources: Accounts created after the event, such as textbooks, documentaries, and articles written by historians.

Historians analyse sources carefully to understand their reliability, perspective, and purpose.

Timelines:

Timelines show events in chronological order
They help us understand the sequence of events
They show cause and effect over time

3.2 Early Human Societies

Early human societies were the first groups of humans who lived together and depended directly on their environment for survival.

Hunter-Gatherer Societies:

Early humans lived by hunting animals and gathering plants
They moved from place to place in search of food and water
They lived in small groups or tribes
Tools were made from stone, bone, and wood

Life as a hunter-gatherer was difficult and depended heavily on natural conditions.

The Agricultural Revolution:

People learned to grow crops and domesticate animals
This led to a steady food supply
People no longer needed to move constantly

Farming allowed humans to settle in one place and build permanent homes.

Permanent Settlements:

Villages and towns began to develop
Populations increased
New jobs and skills developed (farmers, potters, builders)
Settlements were often near rivers and fertile land

3.3 Ancient Civilizations: Indus Valley & Mesopotamia

Ancient civilizations were advanced societies with organised systems of living, governance, technology, and culture. These civilizations developed mainly along rivers, which provided water, fertile land, and transport routes.

Key characteristics of ancient civilizations:

Permanent settlements and planned cities
Surplus food production
Specialised jobs and social organisation
Systems of governance
Religious beliefs and cultural practices
Use of technology and tools

The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE):

The Indus Valley Civilization developed along the Indus River in present-day India and Pakistan. Major cities included Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.

City Planning:

Cities were laid out in a grid pattern
Streets crossed each other at right angles
Houses were built using baked bricks of uniform size

Drainage and Sewage Systems:

Advanced underground drainage systems ran beneath streets
Most houses had bathrooms connected to drains
Wastewater flowed into covered sewers

The Indus Valley drainage system was far more advanced than that of many later civilizations.

The Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro):

A large rectangular water tank built with waterproof bricks
Located in a public area of the city
Likely used for religious or ceremonial bathing

Seals and Artefacts:

Small stone seals engraved with animals and symbols
Used for trade, identification, or administration
Indicate the existence of a writing system (still undeciphered)

Daily Life and Economy:

People were farmers, traders, craftsmen, and builders
Trade occurred within the civilization and with distant regions
Standardised weights and measures were used

The Mesopotamian Civilization:

Mesopotamia developed between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in present-day Iraq. It is often called the “cradle of civilization”.

Early Cities:

Important cities included Ur, Uruk, and Babylon
Cities were surrounded by walls for protection
Temples called ziggurats were built at the centre

Writing and Records:

Mesopotamians developed one of the earliest writing systems called cuneiform
Written on clay tablets using reed styluses
Used for laws, trade records, and religious texts

Artefacts and Technology:

Clay tablets showing trade and laws
Tools made from bronze
The wheel, plough, and irrigation systems

Law and Governance:

One of the earliest legal codes was the Code of Hammurabi
Laws were written and publicly displayed
Showed the importance of order and justice in society

Mesopotamian civilizations contributed significantly to writing, law, mathematics, and science.

Why rivers were essential:

Provided water for drinking and farming
Fertile soil helped crops grow
Enabled trade and transport

4.1 Communities

A community is a group of people who live, work, or share common interests together. Communities help people support one another and live cooperatively.

Types of Communities:

Local community: People living in the same area such as a neighbourhood, village, or town.
National community: People living within the same country who share laws, government, and national identity.
Global community: People around the world connected through trade, communication, shared problems, and international organisations.

Communities need organisation, cooperation, and shared rules in order to function smoothly.

Schools, families, and clubs are also examples of communities.

4.2 Rules and Laws

Rules and laws are guidelines that help maintain order, safety, and fairness in society. They tell people what is acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.

Rules:

Usually apply to specific places (home, school, workplace)
Help ensure safety and discipline
Consequences are usually mild

Laws:

Apply to the whole country
Are created by the government
Breaking laws can result in serious punishment

Why rules and laws are important:

Maintain peace and order
Protect people’s rights
Ensure fairness and justice
Help resolve conflicts

Without rules and laws, societies would become unsafe and chaotic.

4.3 Rights and Responsibilities

Rights and responsibilities are essential parts of citizenship. They ensure that people are treated fairly while also contributing positively to society.

Rights:

Things that people are entitled to
Protect freedom, safety, and dignity
Examples include the right to education and protection

Rights of Children:

Right to education
Right to health and safety
Right to express opinions
Right to be protected from harm

Responsibilities:

Following rules and laws
Respecting others
Taking care of the environment
Contributing positively to the community

Rights and responsibilities must work together for a society to function well.

4.4 Government and the Three Pillars of Government

Government is the system through which a country is organised and governed. It is responsible for making decisions, creating laws, and managing public services.

Main roles of government:

Making and enforcing laws
Protecting citizens
Providing services such as education and healthcare
Managing the economy

The Three Pillars (Branches) of Government:

1. Legislative:

Makes laws
Represents the people
Examples: Parliament, Congress

2. Executive:

Implements and enforces laws
Runs the country on a daily basis
Examples: President, Prime Minister, Cabinet

3. Judiciary:

Interprets laws
Ensures laws are applied fairly
Examples: Courts, Judges

The separation of powers prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful.

4.5 Types of Governance

Different countries are governed in different ways depending on how power is distributed and exercised.

Monarchy:

Power is held by a king or queen
Leadership is often hereditary
Can be absolute or constitutional

Democracy:

Power lies with the people
Citizens vote for their leaders
Emphasises rights, freedoms, and equality

Dictatorship:

Power is held by one person or a small group
No free elections
Limited rights and freedoms

The type of governance affects how much freedom citizens have.

4.6 Economic Systems (Introduction)

Economic systems explain how a country produces, distributes, and consumes goods and services.

Capitalism:

Private individuals own businesses and property
Prices are determined by supply and demand
Encourages competition and innovation

Communism:

Property and resources are owned by the state
Aims for equal distribution of wealth
Economic decisions are made by the government

Most modern countries use a mixed economic system combining elements of both.

5.1 Needs and Wants

Economics is the study of how people make choices about using limited resources to satisfy their needs and wants.

Needs:

Things that are essential for survival
Without needs, humans cannot live safely or healthily
Examples: food, water, shelter, clothing, healthcare

Wants:

Things people desire but do not need to survive
Make life more comfortable or enjoyable
Examples: toys, video games, branded clothes, holidays

Needs are limited and basic, but wants are unlimited and can change over time.

Scarcity:

Scarcity means that resources are limited
People cannot have everything they want
This forces individuals, governments, and businesses to make choices

Scarcity is the basic problem of economics.

Examples of scarcity:

Limited money to buy many things
Limited natural resources like water or oil
Limited time to do multiple activities

5.2 Goods and Services

Goods and services are produced to satisfy people’s needs and wants.

Goods:

Physical items that can be seen and touched
Can be bought, sold, or used
Examples: books, food, furniture, phones, clothes

Types of Goods:

Consumer goods: Used directly by people (food, toys)
Capital goods: Used to produce other goods (machines, tools)

Services:

Actions or work done for others
Cannot be touched or stored
Examples: teaching, medical care, transport, haircuts

Most people depend on both goods and services in their daily lives.

A teacher provides a service, while a textbook is a good.

5.3 Production and Consumption

Production and consumption describe how goods and services are made and used in an economy.

Production:

The process of making goods or providing services
Uses resources such as land, labour, and capital
Done by farmers, factories, companies, and workers

Factors of Production:

Land: Natural resources like water, soil, minerals
Labour: Human effort and skills
Capital: Tools, machines, buildings

Consumption:

The use of goods and services to satisfy needs and wants
Done by individuals, families, and governments
Consumption depends on income and choices

Production and consumption are connected — goods must be produced before they can be consumed.

If people buy more of a product, producers may make more of it.

5.4 Saving and Spending

People earn money through work or allowances and must decide how to use it. This involves making choices between saving and spending.

Spending:

Using money to buy goods and services
Necessary to meet basic needs
Requires careful decision-making

Saving:

Keeping money for future use
Helps prepare for emergencies or long-term goals
Can be done using piggy banks or bank accounts

Why saving is important:

Helps achieve future goals
Provides financial security
Encourages responsible money habits

Wise Financial Choices:

Deciding between needs and wants
Planning how to use money carefully
Avoiding unnecessary spending

Good saving and spending habits help people manage scarcity.

6.1 Environment and Society

The environment includes all living and non-living things around us, such as air, water, land, plants, animals, and climate. Society refers to how humans live together, including communities, economies, cultures, and governments.

Environment and society are closely connected. Human survival depends on natural resources, but human activities can also harm the environment.

Human use of natural resources:

Water for drinking, farming, and industry
Land for housing, agriculture, and transport
Forests for timber, fuel, and paper
Minerals and fossil fuels for energy and technology

Impact of human activities on the environment:

Deforestation due to farming, urbanisation, and logging
Air pollution from vehicles, factories, and power plants
Water pollution from waste, chemicals, and sewage
Soil degradation from over-farming and chemical use

These activities can damage ecosystems, reduce biodiversity, and negatively affect human health.

Environmental consequences:

Climate change caused by increased greenhouse gases
Loss of wildlife habitats and extinction of species
Natural disasters becoming more frequent or severe
Shortage of clean air and safe drinking water

Humans depend on the environment, but the environment also depends on responsible human behaviour.

6.2 Sustainable Practices

Sustainability means meeting the needs of the present without harming the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Sustainable practices aim to protect natural resources while allowing societies to develop and grow.

Conservation:

The careful use and protection of natural resources
Prevents waste and environmental damage
Ensures resources last longer

Examples of conservation:

Protecting forests and wildlife reserves
Saving water and electricity
Reducing pollution
Recycling and reusing materials

Renewable resources:

Resources that can be naturally replaced over time
Less harmful to the environment
Examples: sunlight, wind, water, forests

Non-renewable resources:

Resources that exist in limited amounts
Take millions of years to form
Examples: coal, oil, natural gas, minerals

Overuse of non-renewable resources can lead to shortages and serious environmental damage.

Sustainable daily practices:

Using public transport or walking
Reducing plastic use
Supporting renewable energy
Buying only what is needed

Sustainability is about balance — using resources wisely, not stopping development entirely.

6.3 Global Citizenship

Global citizenship means understanding that we are part of a worldwide community and that our actions can affect people and environments across the globe.

A global citizen is aware of global issues and acts responsibly to help create a fairer and more sustainable world.

Key characteristics of a global citizen:

Respects different cultures, beliefs, and traditions
Understands global problems such as poverty and climate change
Cares about human rights and equality
Acts responsibly toward the environment

Examples of global issues:

Climate change
Pollution and waste
Poverty and hunger
Lack of access to education and healthcare

How individuals can act as global citizens:

Reducing waste and conserving resources
Respecting people from different cultures
Staying informed about world events
Supporting community and global initiatives

Even small actions, when taken by many people, can create meaningful global change.

Global citizenship begins with awareness and continues through responsible action.

Understanding OPVL

Step One – OPVL: Origin, Purpose, Value, Limitation

Origin, Purpose, Value and Limitation (OPVL) is a technique for analyzing historical documents. It is used extensively in the International Baccalaureate curriculum and assessments and is highly effective in developing critical historical thinking. OPVL is closely related to Document Based Questions (DBQs).

Origin

In order to analyze a source, you must first identify what it is. Not all origin questions can always be answered, but the more you know about where a document comes from, the easier it becomes to determine its purpose, value, and limitations.

The distinction between primary and secondary sources can be complex, as historians often debate how certain documents should be classified.

Primary Sources

Letters, journals, interviews, speeches, photographs, paintings, and other firsthand materials. These are created by individuals directly involved in events and present original perspectives. They are not filtered through later interpretation.

Secondary Sources

Materials written with hindsight that interpret or evaluate primary sources, such as history textbooks or scholarly analyses. Political cartoons can sometimes function as either primary or secondary sources depending on context.

Note: One type is not inherently more reliable than the other. Both provide valuable historical evidence.

Key Origin Questions

Who created the document?
When was it created and published?
Where was it produced?
Who published it?
What do we know about the author that is relevant?

Purpose

Purpose focuses on why the document exists. You must think from the author’s perspective and evaluate the document as a standalone piece.

Why was this document created?
What was the author’s intent?
Why was this format chosen?
Who was the intended audience?
What does the document explicitly state?
What can be inferred beyond the surface meaning?

Avoid phrases like “I think”. Instead, write: “The document suggests… because this is supported by…”

Value

This is where you evaluate the document as a historian. Based on the origin and purpose, determine what value the document has as historical evidence.

What does it reveal about the author?
What does it show about the time period?
What circumstances influenced its creation?
Does it represent a particular perspective or side?
What historical context does it accurately reflect?

Example of Value Analysis:

The journal entry written by President Truman before the atomic bombing of Japan demonstrates his moral dilemma and awareness of diplomatic, military, and humanitarian consequences.

Limitation

Limitations identify where the document ceases to be useful for historians—not simply its flaws.

What parts of the story are missing?
Whose perspectives are excluded?
How could this source be verified?
Does it inaccurately represent any aspect of the time period?
What does the author deliberately avoid discussing?

Bias does not automatically limit a source’s value. If discussing bias, explain who the source favors or excludes and why.

Step Two – OPVL Format for Assessments

Category	Guiding Questions
Origin	When, where, and by whom was it produced?
Purpose	What was the intended audience and intent?
Value	What makes this document useful to historians?
Limitation	What can this document not tell us?

OPVL Rubric

Category	A	B	C	D–F
Origin	Strong and extensive understanding	Clear understanding	Some understanding	No understanding
Purpose	Strong understanding of author, context, and intent	Some understanding	Limited understanding	No understanding
Value	Two or more accurate, relevant insights	Somewhat accurate insights	Limited or inaccurate insights	Missing or incorrect
Limitation	Two or more accurate, relevant insights	Somewhat accurate insights	Limited or inaccurate insights	Missing or incorrect

UNIT 1: Introduction to Individuals & Societies