Unit 1: Independence and National Identity

Case Study of the Indian National Movement for Freedom

Indian National Movement - Establishment of the Indian National Congress, Ideological differences and Split in the movement; Gandhian movements till 1942.

KC: Identity
RC: Ideology, Power, Conflict

Points/Concepts to Focus On for the Unit

You’ll be linking and structuring your responses in the exam around these keywords, especially the long-response answer questions.

Identity: The state or fact of being the same. It includes defining features of the object, individual, or concept, and can be observed, constructed, asserted, and shaped by internal and external influence.
Ideology
Power
Conflict
Fairness and development: Inequality, differences, inclusion, power and authority, religion, freedom, privilege, and security.

Administrative Policies under the British

The Army

Maintaining an army was crucial for the British to conquer and subjugate new territories and protect existing ones. In India, they enlisted soldiers called “sepoys”, mainly from Bihar, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh.

Revenue Collection from Agriculture

A large amount of money entered British coffers from agriculture. But not all administrative policies were created the same, with the British utilizing three separate policies for different regions throughout India:

Permanent Settlement (Introduced by Lord Cornwallis)
Mahalwari System
Ryotwari System

Zamindars (landowners) had a hereditary right over the land, while farmers were treated as tenants.

Farmers were made to pay a fixed land revenue of usually around 50% of all produce.
Multiple villages were grouped into mahals. The head of the mahal collected revenue on behalf of the British.
“Ryotwari” comes from the word for peasant, “ryot”. Farmers directly owned land but were still subject to the land revenue policy, which, when fixed, would be set for thirty years.
Utilized in Bihar and Bengal.
Utilized in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Punjab.
Utilized in Bombay (Now Mumbai) and Madras (Now Chennai).
The farmers were forced to cultivate cash crops (indigo and cotton) which devastated the soil instead of grains like wheat and rice.
They benefitted from improved agricultural techniques.
Farmers were exploited and oppressed.
Farmers in Bengal eventually revolted in 1859, to protest the growth of indigo plants, which ruined the soil.

The British received loyalty from the zamindars, a reliable source of income from Bengal and Bihar, and a continuous flow of revenue.

After the revenue collection, and especially during lean years, farmers had very little money left to eat. After they died, the law dictated for the farmer’s land to be divided amongst his sons. The land became much smaller now, which led to even small individual earnings for each owner.

Farmers were often attached emotionally and socially to their ancestral land, and preferred to borrow money from moneylenders instead of selling the land. Moneylenders as a result would charge inflated interest rates, leaving farmers with little money to support their family.

Handicrafts

Indian exports of goods like jewellery, spices, and textiles were extremely popular, leading to competition with British machine-made goods. The British worked their way around this by imposing heavy import taxes on Indian goods and enforcing restrictive export policies, while British goods could be imported into India duty-free.

Industry

The British presence in India led to rapid industrialization taking place. The British especially invested in industries such as the coal industry, with there being around 100 coal mines by the late 19th century, the jute industry, the textile industry, and the sugar industry, with India becoming the largest producer of sugar internationally by the 20th century.

They also constructed railroads and canals as means to transport goods. The first railroad in India, which ran from Bombay to Thane, was inaugurated in 1853. They framed policies that favoured themselves over the Indians, and prioritized cheap labour and profits over paying living wages to labourers.

Meanwhile, the Tata family started iron and steel businesses in Jharkhand in 1907– industries which the Brits neglected. Rather, the latter chose to sanction loans and licenses for Indian industries and businesses.

In relation to this, the movement of “swadesh”, literally translating to “one’s own country”, began to emerge, where people were encouraged to purchase indigenous, Indian-made goods, similar to the Made in India movement that would follow in the modern day.

Dalhousie’s Expansion

1848: Dalhousie becomes new Governor-General, develops 2 ways to annex India: Doctrine of Lapse and misgovernment.

Doctrine of Lapse: When the ruler of a kingdom under British protection (subsidiary state) dies without a biological heir, kingdom becomes part of British dominion, DOES NOT go to adopted heir unless British approve adoption.
Misgovernment: Used by Brits to annex Awadh in 1856. Accused Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of misrule and not adding social reforms. Large no. of “sepoys” (Indian soldiers) from Awadh, contributed to First War of Independence later.

Administration of India under British

Aimed to increase trade profits, make territories more profitable, and solidify control over India. Established presidency cities of Bombay, Madras, and Bengal. Administration undertaken by army, police, judiciary, and civil service.

Civil Service

Started by Lord Cornwallis. Till 1853, civil servants dominated by EIC directors. Post-1853, civil servants chosen through exam. Rigged against Indians because examination was held in London, exam had to be answered in English, and maximum application age was very low.

Education in British India

Initially, India lacked a formal system of education. Pathshalas and madrasas were educational institutions that held only small classes. The curriculum was flexible and not fixed, nor were there any exams or formal textbooks. Knowledge was delivered orally, and there was an absence of classes on science and geography, with teachers instead focusing on languages like Persian and Sanskrit, and, oddly enough, mathematics.

Then came the British: British educational reforms in India were centered around 2 goals: civilizing the natives by introducing Indians to Western ideals so they could be admitted into administrative-level tasks, and the downward filtration theory, which ignored the need for mass education in India and believed that by educating the middle- and upper-classes, the knowledge would “trickle down” to the rest.

The majority of the heavy lifting was done by the Wood’s Despatch of 1854. The legislation led to:

The establishment of educational institutions across the country.
The demand for at least one government school in each district.
Government aid to private schools.
Education at the primary level in the vernacular, but higher-level education being conducted solely in English.
The formal training and recruitment of teachers.
Increased support for female education (though this came with many obstacles due to traditional Indian norms surrounding purdah).

However, the despatch failed to address the need for mass education, and an education in the sciences.

Indian Education Reforms

Eventually, educated Indians began taking things into their own hands, desiring that their own countrymen, too, receive modern education. Rabindranath Tagore especially wanted to combine both Indian and Western education. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan established the Jamia Millia Islamia, which is now the Aligarh Muslim University. Meanwhile, Mahatma Gandhi supported the ideal of Nai Talim (New Education), which not only promoted basic education for all, but also encouraged Indians to take pride in their culture and manual labour and become self-reliant.

The Sepoy Mutiny (1857)

…also known as the First War of Independence, The Indian Rebellion of 1857, and the Revolt of 1857.

Causes

Economic

Strict Revenue Collection Policies: Systems such as the Mahalwari System, the Ryotwari System, and the Permanent Settlement system designed to collect revenue from peasants were incredibly harsh even in the face of crop failure, which led to dissatisfaction with the British.
Forced Competition for Artisans: Traditional handicraft industries in India were displaced and forced to compete with cheap, machine-made British goods imported to India. Handicraft works were also often heavily taxed and suffered a high export duty, pissing off the artisans.

Political

Displacement of Ruling Classes: Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse, alongside the Subsidiary Alliances system, got rid of a lot of the native rulers of India– at least those that weren’t slain or defeated in direct combat with the British.

Social

Racism: Indians weren’t allowed into first-class train compartments, which Gandhi experienced firsthand. Educated Indians, too, were denied promotions.
Social Reforms: Extremist Indians felt that British laws banning sati, promoting widow remarriage and female education were encroaching on their cultural norms and trying to extinguish Hinduism. Criminals of different castes were also held in the same jail cell, which angered extremists due to the norm of “untouchability”.
Fear of Forced Conversion: The introduction of Christian missionaries into India led to a fear of religious persecution and being forcibly converted to Christianity. This was further aggravated by the passing of a law that allowed Christian converts to inherit ancestral land from their Hindu parents.

Military

The Annexation of Awadh/Oudh: The majority of sepoys hailed from the Kingdom of Awadh, hence the annexation of their homeland angered them. Furthermore, Awadh was conquered under falsified and exaggerated charges of incompetence against the Indian ruler.
Unfair Treatment of Sepoys: Sepoys were paid less than their British counterparts and could not ascend to ranks higher than a subedar. They weren’t allowed to wear religious symbols or caste identifiers, were forced to fight overseas, and had their foreign service allowance revoked.

Immediate Causes – The Greased Cartridges Incident

A new type of rifle called the Enfield rifle was introduced to sepoys, which utilized bullet cartridges covered in greased paper wrapping. Sepoys had to bite off the paper to load the cartridge. Rumours arose that the grease was made from cow and pig fat, offending both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.

The culmination of all these causes led to the revolt.

On March 29th, a sepoy named Mangal Pandey fired at a British officer and encouraged others to join him in the revolt, before being hanged.

In April, sepoys in Meerut refused to fire and were jailed. Their fellow soldiers broke them out, killed British officers, seized weapons, and burned British properties. The rebellion spread to Delhi, where Bahadur Shah Zafar was declared emperor of India.

Other uprisings followed, including those led by Rani Lakshmi Bai in Jhansi and Begum Hazrat Mahal in Lucknow. However, the British eventually recaptured Delhi, exiled Shah Zafar to Myanmar, and brutally suppressed the rebels.

Indians referred to the event as the First War of Independence, while the British called it the Sepoy Mutiny to minimize its significance and ignore civilian participation.

Failures of the Uprising

Localized to Northern India
Weak leadership and lack of a unified national goal
Inferior arms and ammunition compared to the British

Consequences of the Rebellion

Divide-and-Conquer Strategy: British policies began deliberately encouraging Hindu-Muslim divisions.
The British Raj began in 1858, transferring control to the British Crown.
Withdrawal of the Doctrine of Lapse.
Withdrawal of social reforms.
Increase in the ratio of Indian to European soldiers.

Social Reforms in India

Being a woman or someone belonging to a lower caste in colonial India sucked big-time. Practices such as sati, child marriage, female infanticide, polygamy, and denial of widow remarriage were widespread. Lower castes were treated as “untouchables” and denied basic rights.

Social reform movements began in the early 19th century. Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828, while the Veda Samaj and Prarthana Samaj promoted education, widow remarriage, and caste reform.

In 1856, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s efforts led to the Hindu Widows Remarriage Act. Jyotiba Phule and Savitribai Phule opened schools for girls of lower castes in 1848.

Lord Drinkwater Bethune (what the FUCK is that name bro) founded India’s first girls’ school in Calcutta in 1849. Kandukuri Veeresalingam supported girls’ education in Andhra Pradesh.

In 1929, the Child Marriage Restraint Act banned marriage of girls under 15 and boys under 18.

Reformers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, and Mahatma Gandhi fought caste discrimination through education, publications, and nonviolent campaigns.

Indian National Movement

Nationalism spread due to British policies, improved connectivity, modern education, exposure to Western ideals, and the use of English as a common language.

Newspapers, patriotic literature, and policies such as the Vernacular Press Act, the Arms Act, and the withdrawal of the Ilbert Bill intensified resentment.

Political associations formed throughout the late 19th century but lacked mass support. Indians increasingly demanded a larger organization with clear political goals.

The Indian National Congress:

Surendranath Banerjea laid the foundations by forming the Indian Association of Calcutta in 1876, wanting to represent the rising educated middle class and inspire nation-wide action for independence.

The British, still recovering from the Revolt of 1857, believed in a “Safety Valve Theory”, where they assumed that by providing Indians a platform to air out their issues they could avoid another rebellion. This led to A. O. Hume, a British official, forming the Indian National Congress by holding its first session in Bombay, where Womesh Chandra Banerjee was voted to be its first president, in 1885. 72 delegates from all across the country arrived.

Though initially, the INC was under the supervision of the British, it came to be dominated by a group called the “moderate nationalists”, leading to the…

Moderate Phase

The moderates dominated the INC for the first 20 years of its existence, with the group composed of individuals such as Surendranath Banerjea, Dadabhai Naroji, and Mahadev Govinda. These individuals belonged to the educated middle class.

The main ideology of the Moderates was that Indian independence and progress could only be achieved by working with the British, whom they essentially saw the best in. They never truly desired COMPLETE independence, just to be treated as equals and not slaves by their colonizers.

Demands of the Moderates

Abolition of the Salt Act and export duty on sugar.
Separation of the judiciary government branch from the executive one.
Increased power for local-level governments.
Freedom of speech.
Less military spending.
The reformation and expansion of legislative bodies.
Holding the Indian Civil Services exam in both India and England instead of just the latter, to allow Indians to also have the opportunity to work administrative jobs.

Achievements

Popularizing democracy and nationalism.
Expanding the legislative body with the 1892 Indian Councils Act.
Exposing the exploitative colonial rule of the British.

Limitations

However, they failed to promote democracy to a greater degree, achieve universal voting rights, and didn’t include women in their campaigns. This was likely due to the fact that the British mostly turned a deaf ear to their petitions, and having a narrow social base consisting only of the educated middle class, which meant that their ideals didn’t reach the common masses.

“In order for non-violence to work, your opponent must have a conscience,” as goes the saying by Stokely Carmichael. The Moderates didn’t seem to understand that.

The people wanted active rebellion, and the British wanted to shut down the INC because instead of quelling Indian nationalism like they thought it would, it only aggravated it further. And the group that answered to this call were responsible for…

The Radical Phase

The Moderates failed to bring any real change, so the “radical nationalists”, a.k.a. Radicals took over. These included Lal-Bal-Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Bipin Chandra Pal). They wanted strong political action: boycotts, strikes, and political demonstrations.

Critical of their Moderate predecessors, the Radicals wanted swaraj, or self-rule, which they believed could only be achieved via independent action and not cooperation with the British. This extremism was fuelled by worsening living conditions in India.

The Radicals were younger, consisting of young adults and college students, and included more women as well. Their strategies included boycotting British goods, outcasting those who sold and purchased them, and promoting swadeshi by encouraging Indian-made goods.

Brahmins didn’t perform religious rites in houses that used British-made salt and sugar, while matchbox labels advertised the movement using stickers with the icon of Bharat Mata, the personification of India as a woman, with the message of “Buy Swadeshi”.

In 1906, another political party arose known as the All-India Muslim League. Supposedly founded on the belief of a “loss of identity” if Muslims joined the Hindu-majority INC, the league was founded by Nawab Salimulla Khan and Aga Khan.

Partition of Bengal (1905)

The Partition of Bengal and the chaos that followed were driven by Viceroy Lord Curzon.

1899: Curzon introduced the Calcutta Corporation Act, increasing British representation in legislative bodies.
1904: Indian Universities Act placed universities under government control, and the Ancient Monuments Act made monument preservation a government responsibility.

Bengal included modern-day West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, and Bangladesh. Curzon proposed splitting Bengal into East Bengal (Muslim-majority) and West Bengal (Hindu-majority), claiming it was for administrative convenience (bet no one ever said that about him lmfao).

In reality, it was an attempt to divide Hindus and Muslims and weaken the strong nationalist movement in Bengal, which relied heavily on boycotts and picketing of foreign goods.

Curzon attempted to appease Muslims by promising Dhaka as the capital of East Bengal and establishing a university there. Indian leaders opposed this, with Rabindranath Tagore urging Hindus and Muslims to tie rakhis and consider each other brothers.

Lord Harding reunited Bengal in 1911, excluding Bihar and Odisha. Despite this, the partition created a lasting Hindu-Muslim rift, strengthening the Muslim League.

When Bengal was finally divided again in 1947, Tagore’s poem Amar Sonar Bangla became the opening lines of Bangladesh’s national anthem.

The Surat Split (1907)

Despite them coming together to protest the partition of Bengal, the Moderates and the Radicals split in the INC in 1907 at Surat, but eventually came back together in Lucknow in 1916.

The Morley-Minto Reforms

Organized by the British to promote their “divide-and-conquer” strategy and supposedly pacify the Muslim League. It established a separate electorate system, which divided people into voting constituencies based on religion, and only allowed people to vote for candidates of the same faith as themselves.

Enter: Gandhi

Full name Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the man would go on to become one of the most significant figures in the Indian Independence Movement. Gandhi practised four main ideologies:

Satyagraha: Truthfulness in the face of everything, and nonviolence as well.
Ahimsa: Nonviolent protests.
Swadeshi: Self-reliance and the promotion of Indian-made goods over British ones.
Mass Movements: Gandhi knew how to incorporate the Indian masses instead of confining the movement to the educated middle class.

Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in 1915 and founded Sabarmati Ashram. He protested against the notion of untouchability, and popularized khadi, a type of hand-woven white cloth, as a symbol of swadeshi.

He protested alongside peasants who refused to pay land taxes due to the crop failure that year in Kheda, Gujarat against mill owners.

He promoted various methods of non-violent resistance such as through boycotts, not paying taxes, picketing shops selling foreign goods, and peaceful protests.

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

On 13th April, 1919, a large group of people were gathered in Amritsar’s Jallianwala Bagh, a park in the area. The crowd contained civilians, including children. While some were peacefully protesting the arrests of two Indian freedom fighters, others were celebrating the festival of Baisakhi. The park had only one exit.

A ban had been placed on large public gatherings in response to a violent protest by a mob of Indians in response to the very same arrests.

The military commander of Amritsar, General Dyer, ordered the British Indian Army and British soldiers to block the entrance to the park and begin firing till their ammunition ran out. They fired.

Anywhere between 1200 and 1500 people were severely injured. 379 died. All of them peaceful protestors, innocent civilians, or children.

The brutal incident was the last straw for multiple Indian leaders. Tagore gave up his British-given knighthood in protest.

The Khilafat Movement (1920)

Turkey got the short end of the stick after WW1 (remember the Treaty of Sevres? Yeah, that.) This led to the division of the Ottoman Empire, and resulted in the Caliph losing his power. Now, the Caliph was both the head of Turkey, but also an influential figure in Islam.

To protest this, brothers Mohammed and Shaukat Ali organized the Khilafat Movement to demand the return of Arab lands to the Caliph and the restoration of his power.

The INC also joined in to promote Hindu-Muslim unity and to have another opportunity to provoke the British.

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22)

The events of World War I diverted British attention, allowing Indian nationalism to grow. In 1917, the British Secretary of State for India promised the country independence in exchange for the contribution of sepoys to British troops in the war.

However, they went back on their word, not only by dividing up Turkey, which angered a significant population of Indians, but also with the implementation of the Rowlatt Act.

The act was passed in the face of the growing threat of Indian rebellion, and essentially allowed the British government to restrict individual movements, arrest anyone without a warrant, and keep in camera trial, which was to say force people through torture to confess to crimes they hadn’t committed.

This, along with the horrific events of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, spurred Gandhi to begin the Non-Cooperation Movement.

The movement began with Indians giving up titles and honours bestowed on them by the British, like Gandhi giving up his title of “Kaiser-i-Hind”.

Schools, colleges, courts of law were boycotted. Foreign clothes were burnt in bonfires. Strikes were held.

The movement was interrupted by the Chauri Chaura incident, where violent protest led to Gandhi withdrawing the movement due to his commitment to ahimsa.

The Simon Commission and “Go Back, Simon” (1927–28)

In 1927, the British government in India launched the Simon Commission, which consisted solely of British members that refused to accept Indian demands for self-governance.

This insulted several Indian parties fighting for swaraj such as the Hindu Mahasabha, the Muslim League, and the INC.

The commission was almost unanimously boycotted with the slogans, “Simon Go Back” and “Simon Wapas Jao”.

Purna Swaraj Resolution (1928–29)

In 1928, in response to the Simon Commission, multiple Indian political parties assembled at the All Parties Conference to frame the Nehru Report...

Quit India Movement a.k.a the Bharat Chhodo Andolan (1942–43)

When World War Two broke out in 1939, the British declared two things: that, number one, they were at war with Germany; and number two, so was India– without consulting the Indians, of course.

This decision was opposed by multiple Indian leaders as they believed the British forcing their subjects to fight their wars for them was unjust. Almost 3 million Indians had fought for the British up till now, though most of them had volunteered.

In comes Sir Stafford Cripps, a British official, with an offer for Indians to prevent more unrest in the war years to follow. The Cripps Offer promised India dominion status and more freedoms later if they cooperated with the British in the war.

Furthermore, they promised an “opt-out” policy for any states that did not want to join a united India. This pleased Mohammed Jinnah, the leader of the All-India Muslim League, as he desired the creation of a separate Muslim state called Pakistan. However, this angered Gandhi, who wanted nothing to do with a divided India.

Despite clear Indian demands to keep their country out of WWII, the British ignored them. Gandhi exclaimed, “Leave India to God. If that is too much, leave her to anarchy.”

In 1942, the INC passed the Quit India resolution, demanding the British leave India or face another non-violent movement led by Gandhi. He delivered his famous “Do or Die” speech.

“The mantra is ‘Do or Die’. We shall either free India or die in the attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery.” – Mahatma Gandhi, 1942.

Several figures including Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Mohammed Jinnah opposed the movement, fearing INC dominance would marginalize Dalits and Muslims.

The British responded by arresting leaders without trial and censoring the press. This backfired, leading younger activists to adopt more aggressive tactics while underground press flourished.

Nonviolent actions included strikes and marches, while violent actions included sabotage of British infrastructure.

The British retaliated with bombings, mass arrests, and military force. Despite failing to achieve independence immediately, the movement gained international sympathy.

The Muslim League expanded rapidly and strengthened its demand for a separate Muslim state, influencing the eventual Partition of India.

Bose and India in World War II (and an unexpected crossover?)

During WWII, Subhas Chandra Bose rose to prominence. Rejecting Gandhi’s nonviolence, Bose believed freedom required armed struggle.

He became leader of the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj) in 1943, composed largely of Indian POWs and veterans.

Bose escaped house arrest, reached Nazi Germany, and sought help from Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini under the logic of “the enemy of my enemy is my friend.”

This is a real photo btw, Mussolini (left), Bose (centre), Hitler (right)

Indian Independence (1947)

After decades of struggle, India gained independence on August 15th, 1947, with Jawaharlal Nehru as its first Prime Minister.

Unit 2: Industry and Labour

Statement of Inquiry

Key Concept: Change
Related Concepts: Conflict, Causality
Global Context: Scientific and Technical Innovation

Inquiry Questions

Factual

Conceptual

Debatable

Do the benefits of revolutionary scientific and technical innovations outweigh their negative social and economic consequences?

The Origins of Farming

Agricultural practices emerged during the Neolithic Revolution, approximately 10,000–15,000 years ago.

Possible causes include warmer climates, advanced human cognition, religious rituals, and population pressures.

Farming led to permanent settlements, dietary changes, and the rise of pastoralism.

Pastoralism

Pastoralism, also known as herding, was an alternative lifestyle where individuals or groups would move around with large flocks of animals, like sheep, goats, or cows. This likely evolved in societies living in regions that weren’t conducive to agriculture, like deserts.

There were multiple benefits to this lifestyle, such as having a reliable source of food (milk, cheese, meat) as well as shelter and clothing materials (leather, bone, sinew, wool, fur). This also meant that they could trade with agricultural societies in exchange for goods each group lacked.

However, pastoralism had several downsides. Firstly, constant moving. With large herds, it was impossible to stay in one place as animals needed fresh grazing land. This prevented the formation of large permanent settlements.

Secondly, overgrazing could deplete vegetation and erode soil. Thirdly, zoonotic diseases spread more easily between animals and humans. Finally, conflict arose between herders and agricultural societies, as shown by archaeological findings like the Talheim Death Pit.

The Impacts of Agriculture

Expansion into Industries Beyond Agriculture

Prior to agriculture, hunter-gatherers needed to work constantly to sustain themselves. Agriculture introduced surplus food, allowing specialization into other trades such as toolmaking.

Better tools increased agricultural output, reinforcing the cycle of surplus and specialization.

Political Impacts

As populations grew, city-states formed systems of governance, taxation, defense, and writing, leading to governments and militaries.

Surplus food enabled trade between communities, leading to barter systems and eventually currency.

Technological Impacts

Agriculture offered a controllable and reliable food supply compared to hunting and foraging.

Negative Impacts

Environmental

Agriculture caused deforestation, slash-and-burn farming, soil infertility, and long-term environmental degradation.

Social

Farming was labor-intensive, leading societies to adopt slavery or later machinery to replace human labor.

Technological

Crop dependence made societies vulnerable to floods, droughts, and natural disasters.

Industrial Revolution: Barebones Notes

Causes

Political

Peaceful conditions, population growth, improved diets, and global trade allowed experimentation and innovation.

Social

Slave labour and the Enclosure Movement displaced farmers, pushing them into cities or factory work.

Economic

Demand for Indian textiles pushed British innovation in spinning and weaving technology.

Geographic

The Black Plague raised labor costs, encouraging mechanization. Britain’s coal reserves powered industrial machines.

Impacts of Industrialization

Economic

Social

Political

Labour unions formed, new social classes emerged, and urban areas gained political power.

Technological

What Was the Industrial Revolution?

A period marked by increased production, scientific and technical innovation, mechanization, and new energy sources.

Inventions of the Industrial Revolution

The Cotton Gin

Whitney developed the cotton gin to meet the soaring demand for cotton from British textile industries.

How It Worked

Impacts

Economic

Social

Political

Technological

Environmental

Positive Impacts of Agriculture

Social

Increased nutrition availability due to higher calorie density per square kilometer.

Morse Code

Inventor

Morse was an American inventor who attended Yale University and was a prolific painter. He was fascinated by the study of electricity, and his invention of Morse Code and the single-line telegram was spurred on by the discovery of electromagnetism. He developed Morse Code alongside his close friend and partner Alfred Vail.

Why It Was Made

Morse code was invented to fulfill the need for rapid and efficient long-distance communication. Existing systems such as the semaphore were simply too inefficient and inaccurate. Furthermore, the increase in trans-national and international trade spurred the need for long-distance communication even more.

How It Worked

The code itself was an arrangement of dots and dashes which are transmitted as flashing lights or sounds that represent each letter of the alphabet.

Meanwhile, the receiver contained an electromagnet. Upon receiving an electrical signal from the telegraph, the electromagnetic moved a stylus that made an imprint into a piece of paper tape for the duration of the signal, and did not touch the paper if there was no signal. In this way, lines and dots were made.

Impacts

Economic

Political

Social

Technological

The Spinning Jenny

Inventor

Why It Was Invented

Hargreaves lived close to the English town of Blackburn, which was famous for its “Blackburn greys”, which were cotton-linen blend fabrics imported from India. However, the demand from the textile industry grew in Britain, and previous inventions such as John Kay’s flying shuttle improved the productivity of weavers, which put additional pressure on spinners of cloth to up their game…

How It Worked

Impacts

The Water Frame

Inventor

Why It Was Invented

Innovations of the water wheel:

Impacts

The Flying Shuttle

Inventor

Why It Was Invented

How It Worked

Impacts

The Wright Flyer

Inventor

Why It Was Made

The Wright Flyer was just one of many inventions produced in humanity’s historical attempts to conquer the skies. However, it belonged to the “heavier-than-air” class of machines. As the name suggested, it was heavier than the surrounding air but still managed to stay afloat in the sky.

How It Worked

What made the Wright Flyer unlike other flying machines designed at the time was its wing control, allowing the pilot to tilt the angles of the wingtips at opposite angles to control the horizontal motion, or “roll”, of the plane.

Furthermore, manually-controlled rudders enabled the pilot to control the diagonal motion, or “yaw” of the plane. The brothers made their first flight in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina in the U.S., for 6.4 km.

Impacts

Technological

Political

Evolution into Modern-Day Invention

Later inventors used jet engines in place of the four-cylinder engine that the brothers had used, which used the heated, high-velocity gas ejected during the combustion of fuel to produce thrust for aircrafts.

These jet engines travelled at supersonic speeds and even enabled pilots to break the sound barrier. After the end of World War II, though, the aviation industry began to move towards a more commercial angle and opened up commercial passenger flights, birthing companies like Boeing.

The Watt Steam Engine

Inventor

Why It Was Invented

Created in 1776, its sole purpose was to pump water out of coal mines. However, additional adjustments gave it rotational motion that enabled it to turn wheels, allowing it to power early steam engines as well.

Coal mining was a lucrative industry at the time, with Britain having large supplies of coal close to the surface, encouraging them to switch to using it as a primary fuel source throughout the Industrial Revolution.

The steam engine as a whole was initially designed by Thomas Newcomen in 1712 to pump water out of coal mines, which would often flood from groundwater. It was later refined upon by Watt to create the Watt steam engine.

How It Worked

In principle, the engine converted linear motion from the piston to rotational motion on the flywheel. The piston itself was powered by hot expanding steam, which was cooled in a separated condenser to reduce the atmospheric pressure and make the piston drop and rise repeatedly.

Watt later added gears to facilitate smoother rotary motion of the wheel, which led to the engine being utilized to power steam locomotives.

The Daguerreotype

Inventor

Why It Was Invented

The device fulfilled the historical need for capturing images permanently, and was built upon existing machines such as the camera obscura, which had existed since the Renaissance and projected outside images on a smaller screen for artists to trace.

How It Worked

The Daguerreotype was a type of early camera that produced permanent, high-resolution photos, invented by Louis Daguerre in the 1830s.

The camera contained a small copper plate that worked as the “film”, which was coated with silver iodide, a chemical that was light-sensitive and darkened when exposed to large amounts of light.

When exposed to an object in light via the opening of the camera called the aperture, select parts on the film would darken, forming an inverted image of the object on the film. The plate would then be removed from the camera manually and quickly soaked in hot salt solution to prevent the image from darkening further, and a permanent photo, called a “Daguerreotype”, was created.

Evolution into Modern-Day Invention

The process utilized costly copper plates, meaning it was soon replaced by the wet collodion process that was inspired by the Daguerreotype’s method, but printed images on glass, which was cheaper.

The wet collodion process itself was supplanted by the dirt-cheap and revolutionary Kodak Brownie film camera, which utilized a thin type of paper film coated with silver iodide to produce up to 100 small photos, though each camera was sold for just $1 at the time.

Finally, the Daguerreotype would eventually go on to inspire the modern DSLR camera. Similar to its ancestor, the DSLR camera also allows light to enter through an aperture which can be adjusted.

However, when sufficient light has been exposed, rather than removing the plate manually, small curtains in the camera called “shutters” close, blocking additional light rays. The light rays themselves pass through a light sensor, which contains miniature red, green, and blue sections called “pixels” that are sensitive to those colours, and store electric charge depending on the intensity of the light rays of their corresponding colour.

Areas with more intense electric charge produce more vibrant colours, similar to how the silver iodide-coated plate was sensitive to varying intensities of light. The pixels are finally read by the camera to produce an image.

Impacts of the Industrial Revolution

Political

Initial increase in demand for slave labour: Slaves were needed to not only take over food production as people shifted away from farming and moved towards other jobs, but also to harvest palm oil and other fuel sources to keep machines running.

Finally, from a political perspective, the Industrial Revolution was a peaceful and cooperative period in human history. Firstly, the economic development as a result of the revolution reduced societal divides.

The proletariat formed mutual-aid societies to assist one-another in times of need; whereas the bourgeoisie formed philanthropic organizations and charities to support public works both out of goodwill and to showcase their wealth.

However, the revolution also led to the formation of the opposing ideas of capitalism, Marxism, and socialism, as well as the separation of the middle class into the bourgeoisie and the proletariat which was made more evident due to the division of labour and the nature of work performed by each class.

Families were separated, especially in factory work, to earn more money compared to joint work on farmland previously. Thus, the Industrial Revolution both created massive societal divides across social classes, but also bridged gaps between various groups as well.

International trade fostered amiable relationships between countries. The development of the steamboat with solid iron hulls improved overseas trade, while Britain relied on the U.S. and India for raw cotton.

By 1900, 30% of Britain’s income came from trade compared to just 8% in 1700. The construction of the Suez Canal by 1869 further facilitated trade.

On the other hand, the Industrial Revolution perpetuated slavery and reinforced colonial attitudes. Colonies were forced to produce raw materials under the threat of military action, while mass-produced British goods outcompeted local artisans.

Labour unions formed significant political movements, such as the German Social Democratic Party and British reform groups advocating for secret ballots and fair parliamentary representation.

The Reform Bill of 1832 improved representation for industrial cities but failed to give a voice to the working classes.

Economic

Division of labour allowed individuals to specialize in specific professions, improving productivity as settlements urbanized.

New jobs emerged in transport, metallurgy, healthcare, engineering, and housing, while mechanization also caused widespread unemployment in traditional manual labour roles.

Interchangeable parts improved efficiency, though strikes, disease outbreaks, and poor working conditions limited productivity gains.

New industries such as mining, steel production, rail transport, and overseas trade formed interconnected economic systems, while also perpetuating exploitative institutions such as slavery.

Social

Urbanization improved infrastructure and public health, leading to increased life expectancy and scientific breakthroughs in medicine.

However, factory conditions and poor housing led to disease outbreaks, environmental contamination, and severe health issues among the working poor.

Gender Equality

Increased demand for labour brought more women into the workforce, contributing to the women’s suffrage movement.

Despite progress, women faced exploitation, wage inequality, and social abuse, reinforcing systemic gender disparities.

Child Labour

Children were widely employed due to low labour costs and lack of compulsory education, leading to dangerous working conditions and high accident rates.

Education reforms eventually reduced child labour after its dangers were recognized by governments.

Rise of New Social Classes

The Rise of the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat

(and the Foundations of Marxism)

Capitalism

The capitalism of the Industrial Revolution, a.k.a, industrial capitalism, is very different from the longstanding mercantile capitalism that existed in the world previously. Whereas mercantile capitalism only affected traders and merchants, industrial capitalism would go on to change the lives of almost everyone.

Industrial capitalism can be defined as an economic system that relies on investment of capital in machines and technology that are used to increase production of marketable goods. For example, investing in the cotton gin to process raw cotton faster than slave labour could be considered a form of industrial capitalism.

Origins of Industrial Capitalism

Impacts of Industrial Capitalism in Agriculture

Socialism

Socialism evolved as a response and protest against the outcomes of capitalism such as poverty, poor living conditions, child labour, and exploitation.

This conflict led to a clearly defined class struggle and the emergence of two distinct social groups: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

The Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie owned the means of production, including factories, land, and capital. They enjoyed higher living standards, better education, healthcare, and housing.

The Proletariat

The proletariat were the working class, owning only their labor, which they sold to survive. They were often exploited and lacked access to basic resources and services.

The loss of cottage industries and communal land ownership reinforced this divide, as former farmers lost control of the means of production and became factory workers.

Class Struggle and Marxism

The unequal power balance between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat led to frequent class conflict. This aligns with Karl Marx’s key idea that class struggle defines social classes.

Conflict forces classes to become self-aware of their position in society, while the absence of conflict causes this awareness to fade.

Key Tenets of Marxist Ideology

Through his ideology, Marx aimed to empower the proletariat to resist exploitation by the bourgeoisie.

The poor man had no idea about Stalin or Mao. He didn’t know what was coming, did he?

Unit 3: Rights and Social Protest

(US Civil Rights Movement · African Anti-Apartheid Movement · Black Lives Matter)

Nelson Mandela

Born Rolihlahla Mandela in 1918, Mandela was nicknamed “Nelson” by one of his teachers. He studied law and became a lawyer in 1942.

In 1944, he joined the African National Congress (ANC). Alongside Oliver Tambo, another Black man…

Apartheid in South Africa

Background

European colonization of Africa intensified during the late 1800s in the “Scramble for Africa.” The Dutch established settlements in South Africa in 1652, later overtaken by the British in 1815.

Indigenous Black South Africans were forced into exploitative labor roles under white control.

The Creation of Apartheid

In 1948, the South African government introduced apartheid, a system of laws enforcing racial segregation across housing, education, marriage, recreation, and political participation.

Housing

The 1913 Natives Land Act restricted Black South Africans to designated reserves, forcing 70% of the population onto just 13% of the land.

Communal land ownership stripped Black South Africans of economic power and forced them into exploitative labor arrangements.

Education

In 1974, Afrikaans was imposed as a language of instruction, creating barriers to education. Mixed-race universities were banned.

Marriage

Recreational Activities

Political Activities

Employment

Following the initiation of apartheid, Black workers were considered temporary “visitors” in white-owned areas, and their trade unions were not recognized, subjecting them to more exploitation.

The Fight Against Apartheid

The struggle against apartheid was spearheaded by three main political groups: the Communist Party (legally banned in 1950), the African National Congress (ANC), and the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), which splintered off from the ANC.

As the Cold War intensified during the 1960s and 1970s, the South African government used the presence of the Communist Party as justification to suppress resistance movements.

In 1963, Nelson Mandela and other activists were tried for “advancing communism.” Many were imprisoned for life or forced into exile.

Key Figures in Rights and Social Protest

Martin Luther King Jr.

Rosa Parks

Other Influential Individuals

Unit 4: Trade, Aid and Exchange

The European Union

The factors that led trade to encourage aid and exchange as well as bring exploitation and tension.

The ways in which trade can foster both international cooperation and international tension.

Key Concept: Global Interactions
Related Concepts: Cooperation, Interdependence, Significance